Shrouded as it is in antiquity, little would be known about the war of the Jews against Rome if not for the historian Josephus. His text “The Jewish War” is used by scholars to this day, and even provides aid to archaeologists. Yet while the scholarship of Josephus is respected by many, he is far from being a neutral figure. An apologist for the Jews and Judaism, Josephus was nonetheless regarded by many of his compatriots as a traitor. He willingly took refuge in Rome even after his wife and parents perished in the Roman siege of Jerusalem.

The glory of Solomon’s kingdom was short-lived as a dream. After his death, the regions of Judea and Israel were torn permanently into two separate kingdoms. Jeroboam rose to power as the first King of Israel, and established a new capital apart from Jerusalem. Though he was initially perceived as a righteous man, Jeroboam’s later actions caused him to be regarded as a figure of evil in Jewish tradition.

King David, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel, was also the first Judean king to reign in Jerusalem. It was David who transformed Jerusalem into the Holy City of Judaism, and whose dynasty was to rule Judea for centuries to come. And it is David who remains the archetypal Biblical king: a fierce warrior, passionate lover, and poet of the celebrated Psalms. Some believe that one day, the Messiah of the Jews will emerge from the bloodline of King David and restore the Holy Temple to Jerusalem.

Known as the stupor mundi—“wonder to the world”—King Frederick II baffled and enraged his peers in Europe throughout his life. Ruler of Italy, Germany, Burgundy and Sicily, Frederick was frequently at war with the Pope and was excommunicated twice. His persistent refusal to persecute Muslims earned him hatred from many quarters. He led the Sixth Crusade against Egyptian-held Jerusalem in 1228, but the wily king was to get his way in the end through diplomacy rather than through war.

The Arch of Titus stands today among the ruins of ancient Rome for all to see: the relief on the arch depicts Jews being marched into slavery and exile. Captured with them are the treasures of the Holy Temple, which was razed to the ground. These ancient images tell the story of the Emperor Titus’ conquest and destruction of Jerusalem—a story of exile and loss of a homeland, with echoes that reverberate even to this day.

The Temple Mount as we know it today would not have existed if not for King Herod, the most prolific builder of all the Judean kings. Herod represents a welter of contradictions: Notorious for his brutal tyranny, his unjust killings, and paranoia, Herod is also famous for the magnificent structures that he erected throughout Judea. His most notable achievement was to expand the Holy Temple in Jerusalem to palatial and massive proportions.

Praised in song and verse for his exemplary conduct in battle, the sultan Saladin is best known for his steadfast resistance to the Crusaders in the twelfth century. He conquered Jerusalem after hundreds of years of Christian rule, and had a chivalrous relationship with his enemy Richard I of England. The Third Crusade was initiated in order to defeat Saladin, and he has emerged in history as an iconic figure of the period.